In Part 1, the unique parallels between the Appalachian Mountain and Baekdudaegan Mountain Range as refugia for flora and fauna during the Ice Age were examined.
Moreover, the spread of wild bird peppers found native as far north as the state of New York north of the Appalachian range indicates a spread beyond the continent of South America when Capsicum emerged 19.5 million years ago and Capsicum annuum diverged 6 million years ago.
While peppers growing in tropical climates tend to lignify into perennial trees, in colder climates in more northern latitudes, wild Capsicum annuum bird pepper could continue propagation from seeds through annual cycles as a function of the seeds being dispersed by consuming birds unaffected by the spicy capsaicin compound.
Across the present day Bering Sea between Siberia and Alaska, the distance across is not beyond the scope of migratory birds. In fact, wild capsicum peppers made it out even the to the Galapagos Islands by birds.
During the last Ice Age, the sea levels dropped to create even a land bridge called Beringia connecting East Asia to North America land mass.
Beringia: Lost World of the Ice Age (U.S. National Park Service)
The Bering Land Bridge formed during the glacial periods of the last 2.5 million years. Every time an ice age began, a…www.nps.gov
Beringia: Lost World of the Ice Age
https://www.nps.gov/articles/aps-v12-i2-c8.htm
As the Ice Age temperatures fluctuated, even Beringia experienced fluctations in plant and animal species and quite possibly the second wave of early human migration across Siberia settled permanently in regions along the land bridge until the Ice Age ended and it was submerged.
With mountainous terrain forming a natural shield and monsoonal rains from the south, the Korean Peninsula and regions surrounding Baekdusan Mountain to the north served as a refugium for many plant and animal species, forming a biodiversity hotspot for Northeast Asia.
The Korean Baekdudaegan Mountains: A Glacial Refugium and a Biodiversity Hotspot That Needs to Be Conserved
Mi Yoon Chung, Sungwon Son, Gang Uk Suh, Sonia Herrando-Moraira, Cheul Ho Lee, Jordi López-Pujol, Myong Gi Chung
Frontiers in Genetics
23 October 2018
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10 … 00489/full
The Baekdudaegan (BDDG; Figure 1) is a mountain range relatively unknown outside Korea. From recent times, however, the BDDG is known outside Korea because it shelters the small county of Pyeongchang, the venue of the 2018 Winter Olympic Games.
Within the Korean Peninsula, it is regarded as a sort of “backbone,” not only because it stretches across the whole peninsula with over 1,600 km (it is one of the longest chains of East Asia) but also because it is deeply embedded within the Koreans’ spirituality.
The BDDG is also well-known as a biodiversity hotspot, as it remains relatively pristine, particularly in South Korea. It harbors a very significant part of Korea’s biota, especially regarding plants. It is estimated that just the South Korean part of this mountain range might include 1,500 plant species, i.e., about one third of the total flora of the Korean Peninsula (4,662 vascular plant species; Kim, 2006).
About one hundred of the plant species native to the BDDG are endemic to the Korean Peninsula (Choi, 2004), with some of them being exclusively distributed within these mountains (e.g., Gymnospermium microrrhychum, Hanabusaya asiatica, Megaleranthis saniculifolia, and Smilacina bicolor; Figure 1). It should be also noted that the six genera generally regarded as endemic to Korea (Abeliophyllum, Coreanomecon, Echinosophora, Hanabusaya, Megaleranthis, and Pentactina; Kim, 2006; Kim et al., 2009) occur totally or partially within the BDDG and its vicinity.
Although animal surveys of the BDDG are not as complete as for plants, they suggest that this mountain range would be also very rich in species diversity. For example, the BDDG might boast up to 135 bird species (i.e., 26% of the total species for Korea), 36 mammal species (29%), and 32 species of amphibians and reptiles (60%).
As an another example, in only two national parks of the BDDG (Jirisan and Seoraksan) there are nearly 30% of the freshwater fish species of the Korean Peninsula.
• Figure 1. The BDDG mountain system and its representative plant species exclusively distributed. (A) Main ridgeline of the BDDG is represented by a red thick dashed line, (B) Gymnospermium microrrhychum, © Hanabusaya asiatica, (D)Megaleranthis saniculifolia, (E) Smilacina bicolor. The four photos were provided by Hyung Ho Yang (Seoul Botanic Park).
Such value as a biodiversity reservoir seems to be directly related to the role of the BDDG as a Pleistocene refugium, as shown by recent phylogeographic and palaeoecological studies.
Korean populations were studied and found clear signals of the role of these mountains as a glacial refugium:
• [1] Korean populations showed higher intrapopulation genetic diversity than populations located further north (and, in some cases, with latitudinal decreases of genetic variation; i.e., consistent with the “southern richness” vs. “northern purity” paradigm of Quaternary biogeography;
• [2] Korean populations harbored ancestral haplotypes; and
• [3] Korean populations exhibited significant amounts of unique haplotypes/alleles.
BDDG sustained an assemblage of boreal and temperate forests at the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM).
BDDG refugium hypothesis, as populations sampled from these mountains harbored significantly higher genetic diversity than those located further north (in NE China).
BDDG refugium hypothesis can be also found in endemic animals in East Asia.
The BDDG should be, thus, added to the list of the well-known East Asian Pleistocene refugia for plants and animals (e.g., the Hengduan Mts., the Nanling Mts., or the central China Mountains).
On the basis of its shared role as a glacial refugium and a series of striking similarities in floristic richness and orographic features (length, orientation, altitude, and latitude), we believe that the BDDG would constitute a sort of “North East Asian counterpart” of the Southern Appalachians.
Taking advantage of the central role of the BDDG on the heart of Koreans, we believe that an integrated strategy of conservation of natural and cultural heritage…
Ideally, the cooperative conservation efforts toward the BDDG might play a central role because these mountains are shared between South and North Korea not only physically (in a proportion of approximately 4:3), but also culturally; they are home of about half of the sacred peaks for the Koreans regardless of their religion or belief (they harbor sites holy to Shamanists, Buddhists, Daoists, Neo-confucianists, and even Christians; Mason, 2011), and are peppered with religious sites and/or objects (e.g., temples, shrines, stones, and grottoes). For example, nearly one-fifth of the Buddhist temples of South Korea are located in the BDDG.
Holocene Vegetation Responses to East Asian
Monsoonal Changes in South Korea
By Sangheon Yi
Submitted: December 1st 2010
Reviewed: May 4th 2011
https://www.intechopen.com/books/climat … outh-korea
The first studies of Korean plants… established a vegetation map of the Korean Peninsula, which consists of conifer forest (subalpine zone), deciduous broadleaved forest (temperate zone), and evergreen forest (subtropical zone).
The deciduous broadleaved forest is further divided into three zones at different latitudes: the northwest temperate zone, the central temperate zone, and the southern temperate zone.
Moreover, the vertical vegetation zone is divided on the basis of the elevation of mountain ranges. Local vegetation is primarily controlled by climate, soil, geomorphology, and artificial factors.
In all, the distribution of Korean forests is band-shaped and changes with variations in temperature depending on latitude and elevation (Fig. 2).
• Figure 2. Vertical and latitudinal modern vegetation map with an isothermal and an isobaric line (modified from Yim & Kira, 1975). N–S cross-section showing the forests distributed across the peninsula with elevation. Pollen records discussed in the text are from the Paju-Unjeong site (A) and Pyeongtaek site (B).
Temperature is an important factor in the growth and distribution of plants. The mean annual temperature in Korea is 2.5–10.0℃ in the northern region (39°N–43°N), 10.0–12.5℃ in the central region (37°N–39°N), and 12.5–15.0℃ in the southern region (33°N–37°N).
Subalpine conifer forest is mainly distributed in North Korea and consists of evergreen conifers, such as a fir (Abies holophylla, A. koreana, A. nephrolepsis), spruce (Picea jezoenisis), pine (Pinus koraiensis, P. pumila), and yew (Taxus cuspidate), and deciduous broadleaved trees, such as birch (Betula costata, and B. platyphylla var. japonica). These hardwood trees grow under subalpine climate conditions, with a mean annual temperature of 5℃ (Fig. 3a, 3b).
Mixed conifer and deciduous broadleaved forests are dominated by pines (Pinus desiflora) and oaks (Quercus mongolica), with other hardwood trees such as elm (Ulmus parvifolia, U. davidiana var. japonica), Carpinus laxiflora, hazel (Corylus teterophylla var. thunbergii), lime (Tilia amurensis), and maple (Acer palmatum) (Fig. 3c).
Deciduous broadleaved forest (DBF) is distributed between 35°N and 43°N, except in the subalpine area. The main trees are maples (Acer palmatum), oaks (Quercus dentate, Q. aliena and Q. serrata), birches (Betula platyphylla var. japonica), Zelkova serrate, Styrax japonica, Carpinus tschnonoskii, Lindera erythrocarpa, Lindera obtusiloba, and Acer mono (Fig. 3d). This forest is further divided into three zones, the north temperate, central temperate, and south temperate, based on floral components.
Subtropical evergreen forest is located along the south coast and is limited to 35°N in inland areas and 35°30’N in coastal areas, including several islands.
Additionally, coastal conifers such as Pinus thunbergii grow along the west, south, and east coasts (Fig. 3f). Salt marshes composed of Sueda japonica, S. glauca, Salicornia europaea,Salosa komarovii, and Phragmites communis are found in patches along the west and south coasts (Fig. 3g).
• Figure 3. Modern forest types of South Korea.
⁃ Vegetation changes
The available age-controlled pollen datasets allow us to infer the vegetational history of South Korea. The vegetation changes in the eastern and western parts of South Korea are discussed.
During the early Holocene (10 000–7000 cal yr BP), subalpine conifer forest was replaced by broadleaved deciduous forest dominated by hardwood oak trees due to climatic amelioration. Moreover, the forest components evidenced by the pollen records are greater than those of the preceding period.
During the mid-Holocene optimum, the former forest was replaced by a mixed subtropical and warm-temperate broadleaved forest, which was characterized by evergreen oak and thermophilous hardwood trees. These trees were composed mainly of oak Quercus (Cyclobalanopsis)] and Q. (Lepidobalanus)], hornbeam (Carpinus), hazel (Corylus), alder (Alnus), zelkova (Zelkos), and elm (Ulmus).
The mixed subtropical and warm-temperate broadleaved forest flourished under the favorable warm and wet climatic conditions. After the mid-Holocene optimum, the subtropical and warm-temperate forest shrank and was replaced by a temperate forest due to climatic deterioration.
Beginning about 2000 cal yr BP, the forest was affected by human impacts, such as cultivation, slash-and-burn agriculture, and deforestation, recorded in the pollen by the first appearance of the agricultural indicator buckwheat (Fagopyrum) in association with sudden increases in synanthropogenic indicators [Ambrosia, Plantago, Artemisia, and Gramineae (≥35 μm)] and secondary pine trees.
From 8000 to 5000 cal yr BP, subtropical evergreen and warm-temperate forest occupied this area, especially the hills and low mountainous areas, resulting in a high proportion of pollen from trees and shrubs with a smaller proportion from herbs. The evergreen and warm-temperate forest consisted mainly of oak [Quercus(Cyclobalanopsis)] and Q. (Lepidobalanus)], alder (Alnus), willow (Salix), hornbeam (Carpinus), hazel (Corylus), zelkova (Zelkos), and elm (Ulmus).
However, Jun et al. (2010) pointed out that salt marsh (Suaeda) pollen appeared only at certain periods that were comparable to transgression periods of the Yellow Sea (Chough et al., 2004; Park, 1992). The favorable conditions characterized by high moisture and warmer temperatures during the mid-Holocene optimum and the transgression of the Yellow Sea accelerated the flourishing of forests along the western region.
Later, the forest was replaced by conifer-dominated forest with an herb-dominated understory until about 2000 cal yr BP. Additionally, the components of the hardwood forests showed a sudden decline in alder (Alnus) and an increase in birch (Betula) and hazel (Corylus) owing to climatic deterioration.
Beginning about 2000 cal yr BP, anthropogenic indicators, including Fagopyrum, Ambrosia, Plantago, Artemisia, and Gramineae (≥35 μm), and pine trees indicate that human activity played an important role in disturbing the forest and in secondary forestation.
This meteorological phenomena show the climate conditions of Korea are changing to be subtropical zones caused by global warming. With such climate conditions, types and communities of Korean forest can be expected to change.
In summary, the Holocene pollen records reflect differences in forest plant assemblages between the western and eastern regions during the early to middle Holocene.
In the eastern coastal area, dominance alternated between oak and pine over time, reflecting climate changes during the early to middle Holocene. However, in the western coastal area, oak and alder were co-dominant taxa during the early to middle Holocene.
◦ This is a reflection of the geomorphic features of and the marine environmental influence over the Korean Peninsula. The Korean Peninsula is geomorphologically highly mountainous in the east and flat, low, and wide in the west (Fig. 2).
During the early to middle Holocene, the west coast experienced wetter conditions for a longer period of time than did the east coast during sea-level rise.
From the late Holocene (ca. 2000 cal yr BP), pine trees and agricultural indicators increased over South Korea, reflecting the intensity of human impact since that time (Fig. 6).
Due to global warming, no subalpine conifer, especially a Korean fir (Abies koreana), will be exist in South Korea in near future. Also evergreen broadleaved forest will further spread north to 37°N, and south temperate zone of DBF will occupy the region of central temperate zone of DBF.
⁃ Conclusion
The Korean Peninsula, surrounded by the sea on three sides (east, west, and south), is located on the eastern end of the Asian continent and belongs to the temperate zone with four distinct seasons largely controlled by the East Asian monsoon.
During the summer, the Korean Peninsula is occupied by a subtropical high pressure system and experiences warm, wet conditions with frequent, heavy rainfalls.
During the winter, it is cold and dry under the dominant influence of the northwesterly Siberian high air mass.
The Korean Peninsula is an area sensitive to climate changes. Therefore, well-preserved records from the Korean Peninsula that provide a continuous climate history are a source of valuable information of the East Asian monsoonal system.
Despite the blistering cold winters, spring, summer and autumn must have presented a paradise both for food resources and cultural aesthetics, if enough resourcefulness and communal planning allowed humans to survive through the long, freezing winters.
Human impacts on pine-dominated vegetation in rural landscapes in Korea and western Japan
Sun-Kee Hong, Nobukazu Nakagoshi & Mahito Kamada
Vegetatio
February 1995
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00045306
To understand the human influence on the successional process of vegetation, structures of the pine forest as a dominant vegetation were compared between in Yanghwa-ri of rural Korea and Miwa-cho of rural Japan.
The secondary pine forests are well developed around the villages in both regions.
In rural Korea, pine forests are still used intensively for several traditional purposes.
The pine forests in Yanghwa-ri of Korea, therefore, are stayed in the early stage of the succession. The floristic composition in pine forests of Yanghwa-ri was similar to that in the secondary grasslands. The fertilizer trees such as Robinia and Alnuscontributed to develop the stratification of the forest.
On the other hand, in Japan, almost all pine forests in rural regions had been abandoned due to the changing of traditional use because of the economic growth and the development of alternative energy sources since 1960s.
In the case of pine forests of Miwa-cho, those in the early successional stage were few in number and small in patch size. Several woody plants covered under the pine canopy. The shade-tolerant shrub invaded into pine forest floor, because the undergrowth as a traditional energy source had no longer used. Pine forests were partly succeeded by deciduous oaks in Miwa-cho corresponding to the social changes.
On the contrary in Yanghwa-ri, the vegetation replacement will not present because traditional management such as collecting fuels and making graveyards will be remained as a Korean ideology in the rural landscape.
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